POLITICAL SCIENCE

Party system simply means the formation, structure as well as the organization of political parties. It is concerned with the system of government by political parties in a democratic state. It is the political arrangement permitted by the law for political parties in a particular democratic state to operate. The Nation of Nigeria operates multi party system.  

Types of Party System

ONE PARTY SYSTEM: This is the type where only one political party is legally recognized by law to operate. Under this type no other political party is allowed by law to operate and any opposition party is seen as treason. This system is generally associated with authoritarian governments.

It is also considered to be a continuation of despotic and arbitrary rule associated with absolute governments of the past. In communist state, no effective opposition is allowed, for example, in Germany, there is the German Democratic Republic (Eastern Germany) etc.

DOMINANT PARTY SYSTEM: This exists in state where party competition is allowed and where one political party always achieves an absolute majority of the votes of the electorates, and hence dominates the government. For instance, in South Africa there is no coalition political parties, the national party has been in office since 1948. Also, in India, the Indian National Congress has been the only party in government since independence.

TWO-PARTY SYSTEM: Under this system, there are two major political parties as may be found in the United States of America and Britain, where the two dominant parties have the chances of winning or obtaining majority seats in the legislature after every election.

It has been suggested that a two party system introduces an element of artificiality into the political process. Two-party system does not mean that only two political parties exist in the country but it means that only two parties are viable to form the government.

MULTI-PARTY SYSTEM: This type is mostly practiced in European States. For instance, Multi-party system has operated in countries such as Italy, Switzerland, France under the third of fourth republic, Nigeria under the first, second as well as fourth republic. It is found, where there are parliamentary or cabinet system of governments. In multi party system, government tends to be a coalition of more than one party.

Therefore, conclusively, multi party system of government is a situation whereby more than two political parties are allowed by law to operate in the state or in the country. Currently Nigeria is practicing multi party system; which has now cause the rise of many political parties in Nigeria.

INDEPENDENT CANDIDATE: There is a constitutional provision that allows for an individual to run for a political position without belonging to any political party. Individual politicians not belonging to any political party can contest for an election where the state law permits that.

There are numerous reasons why some may stand for office as an independent candidate. Independent candidate may hold a contrast view point between those of political parties. An independent candidate can hold a view more extreme than any major party, an idea from both sides of the spectrum. For instance in Kuwait, political parties are illegal and all candidates effectively stand as independent candidate.

In United States of America, George Washington was the only president elected as an independent candidate, as he was not formally linked to any political party during his two terms. Recent notable candidates running for US President include John Anderson in 1980, Rossperot in 1992 and former Green party Candidate Ralph Nadder in the 2004 and 2008 election.

In Nigeria, political reformers and social crusaders are calling for the amendment of electoral act in Nigeria to give room for independent candidate to contest in election.

Election is an act of choosing or selecting candidates who will represent the people of a country in the parliament and in other positions in government. Through election the popular will of the electorate is expressed and realized. In modern democratic system, election is one of the principles of choosing a leaders.

Schumpetor (1998) sees election as the process of choosing qualified candidates into an existing vacant political post following due democratic process. It is important to note that elections can also be held in non government bodies like club, community based organization, women groups, national and international association for the sole purpose of choosing leaders of such organizations.

Functions of Election

• It enables voters to select their leaders of their choice and hold them accountable for their performance in office.
• It helps to facilitate social and political integration.
• Voting gives people an opportunity to have their say and through expressing partisanship to satisfy their need to feel a sense of belonging.
• It serves as a means of recruiting and appointing political leaders or office holders.
• It serves as a means of effecting or ensuring smooth change of government.
• It ensures acceptance of political leaders by the people.
• It help to ensure stability of government.
• It allow full participation of the citizens, especially the electorate in the government of their country.
• It make a government popular and democratic responsible.
• It serve as a means of ensuring that political sovereignty is vested in the people in a democracy.
• Through election the ultimate will of the electorate is achieved.

The factors that facilitate free and fair election in any given democratic state.

• Unbiased division of constituencies,
• Adequate arrangement for registration of voters and review of voters register.
• Qualification for elections must be on adult suffrage.
• Candidates must not suffer any intimidation or harassment during elections.
• Voters must be allowed to vote for the candidate of their choice. Party system must be such that voters must have alternatives choice of candidates.
• Secret voting must be encouraged.
• Electoral officials must be qualified men and women of unquestionable character.
• The provision of electoral materials should not be used against opposition.
• Elections result must be seen to represent the actual vote cast.
• The election tribunals must be made up of justices with credibility and disputes over election results must be determined within three to six months after the election before a candidate is sworn in as duly elected person.
• For free and fair election to exist, the country must be divided equally into electoral constituencies.
• There should be no gerrymandering to favour one political party against the other or to favour one political group against each other.
• The constituencies must be based on equal population or equal units.
• The division of constituencies must not be used against opposition, or community that does not support the party in power.
• The electoral body must make adequate arrangement for the registration of voters and the review of voters register.
• Those qualified must be allowed to register and to vote and be voted for. The situation where under aged citizens are registered and allowed to vote should be discouraged.
• The electoral body must also discourage the use of money to influence people vote for a candidate at elections.
• The voters must be protected during elections.
• They must be allowed to freely vote for candidates of their choice or to have choice of an alternatives candidate.
• Election materials must be evenly distributed and the handling of election materials must not be used against opposition.
• Secret ballot must be encouraged to protect the independence of choice. No voter should be allowed to vote more than once in an election.
• Anybody who is below the age of 18 should not be allowed to vote. Politicians should be discouraged from registering under aged children to vote.
• Voters should be allowed to choose the party and candidate of their choice.
• Electoral officers must be people who cannot be easily influenced by money, financial, or political gain.
• The counting of votes must be done in the presence of all interested parties. The result must not be altered to favour one group.

IS ELECTIONS FREE AND FAIR IN NIGERIA?

The conduct of a free and fair election in Nigeria has always been an issue. Most elections in Nigeria are marred with rigging, gerrymandering falsification of election results, use of armed men to rig elections, intimidation and harassment of electorates and candidates for election etc. 

The use of law enforcement agents to rig elections has also been reported. Most elections in Nigeria witness bloodshed, clashes among youth wings, arson, kidnaps, acid bath, ritual murder etc. At the higher level, there are manipulations in the conduct of primary elections and party registrations, manipulations in the appointment of electoral commissioner and electoral officials, huddling of registration materials and voter’s cards, delay in arrival of election materials and electoral officials.

However, all this does not give room for free and fair election. Recently, the electoral law is a matter of concern because it is used to manipulate and consolidate the position of the rigger in the election. The election tribunals hears their cases after the winner has been sworn in, this makes it difficult for the petitioner not to have any chance of fair play.

ELECTION TRIBUNAL IN NIGERIA

Election tribunal are set up by the federal government in the case of federal and states elections. The state government sets up election tribunal for the state local government elections. The judiciary is responsible for the setting up of the electoral tribunals, whether it is in the state or federal electoral matters. Some justices of the court of Appeal are appointed to form the election tribunals in the case of the election into the presidency.

Other staffs of the court of Appeal are appointed to work with them as clerks. Judges of the high court are appointed into the election tribunals to hear the matters relating to election into federal constituencies and governorship; and election into House of Assemblies of the state. Each election tribunals is headed by a chairman. The state judiciary appoints judges into the election tribunals of the state.

The local government elections are verified by the tribunals whenever a petition against the conducts of the elections is received. The duties of the tribunals include verifying whether an election is conducted in accordance to electoral rules, whether the person elected is the person who has the majority of votes in an election and whether he was a member of secret cult etc or not qualified in age or certificate to contest.

The ruling of the tribunal is subject to appeal. However, the only recourse to an aggrieved party in an election is to challenge the person who won in a court or tribunal. A person who lost in an election files in a petition within the stipulated number of days and serves the respondent personally or though alternative mean of service as ordered by the tribunal. The respondent replies the petition of the petitioner within the required day and all other processes through his lawyer.

Note that a person who has no genuine grievances should not file a petition, but accept his defeat in good faith. After a petition and replies to the petition have been exchanged, a date is selected for the argument of the parties through their counsels. After the argument and address to the court or adoption of written address, a date is selected for judgement. The judgement or ruling of the tribunals could be appealed against by the aggrieved party, but where not appealed against, the parties must obey the judgement.

The final judgment of the court or tribunal in electoral matters is obeyed by parties. The election tribunals must be made up of justices with credibility. Dispute over election results or declaration of candidates or any matter relating to election must be determined within three to six months after elections. The disputes must be determined before anybody is sworn in as an elected candidate.

Free and fair elections demands that both foreign and local observers should be allowed to monitor the elections in all sections of the country and make suggestions. Those who looted Nigeria treasury with their position in government either as military officers or civilians should not be allowed access to power. Those who fall within this group should be barred from politics and should not be given appointment position in government. Only credible candidates should be given appointment position or allowed in politics.

Electoral process is a method through which the citizens of a state elect their representatives into different political offices. It includes all the constitutional requirement and conditions for the nomination for the primary and general elections.

The electoral process spells out the methods through which the election should be conducted. A body is constituted and charged with the responsibility of organizing, supervising and conducting elections into various government offices.

The process in electoral system includes:

• The creation of electoral constituencies
• Nomination of electoral candidates
• Registration of votes
• Campaigning
• Voting
• Counting of votes
• Announcement of electoral result
• Presentation of election victory certificate

Creation of Electoral Constituencies: this involves delineating the entire area the election is to take place. Population, the geographical and nature of terrain are usually considered.

Nomination of Candidates: political parties conduct primary election to nominate the candidates that will vie for different political position. These candidates represent them in different constituencies.

Registration of Voters: electoral bodies are charged with the responsibility of registering voters, and issuing voters card. The registration exercise provides the statistics for the election and ensures that no voter votes twice.

Campaign: political parties take it upon their shoulder to campaign for their selected candidates. The campaign involves convincing the electorate that their candidates is the best option and introducing manifesto of what they intends to achieve if brought to power.

Voting Exercise: this is the day the electorate will go out in number to carry out their franchise, “to vote and be voted for”. This process is conducted and supervised by electoral commission.

Counting of Votes: Results are collected on ward levels where there is a returning officer who collates all the results in all the entire polling units in the ward. The ward returning officer submits the pool result to the local government returning officer, who collates them and send to the state returning officer.

Amendment of Results: for instance, in presidential election, results collected from the various states of the federation are submitted to the chairman of the electoral body who announces the winner and issues certificate of return to the winner.

Politics of Impeachment in Nigeria

Politicians in Nigeria employ the instrument of impeachment to settle political scores. In some states of the country, issues that are inconsequential, which could easily be ironed out without any noise making, have been allowed to worsen to the point of hindering government activities while the arms of government busy themselves hunting down a target.

Impeachment is used as a sledge hammer by politicians, who are able to sway legislative houses, mobilize lawmakers to impeach governors, deputies and even leadership of the legislative houses who they believe are enemy to achieving their political ambition. Political God-fathers usually mobilize the legislature to impeach governors who refused to dance to their tone. 

What happened in Anambra state in the past is a good example, where Chris Uba the political God-father in Anambra state mobilized the state house of assembly to impeach the governor (Dr Chris Ngige) on the account that the governor refused to share the state resources as agreed before the election. Many Deputy Governors in Nigeria have been impeached because of nursing the ambition to be the next governor.

The most popular case was the purported impeachment of the former vice president Atiku Abubakar by Olusegun Obasanjo controlled National Assembly. Atiku Abubakar wanted to contest for the office of the president while his boss Olusegun Obasanjo wanted a third term in Office. It took the judgement of the Supreme Court of Nigeria to save Atiku Abubakar from being disgraced out of office.

The recent impeachment of the Governor of Adamawa State, Nyako was brought to light when he defected from PDP to All Progressive Congress APC. The hasty impeachment of Governor Murtala Nyako of Adamawa State, who was a maddening critic of the Goodluck Ebele Jonathan Presidency, has thrown up more confusing question in the Nigeria political environment.

Many believed that Goodluck Jonathan presidency is covertly manipulating the impeachment process for malevolent political ends. Political strategist believed that for Goodluck Jonathan to win second term in office, APC controlled states has to be reclaimed by PDP before the next general election.

The Nigerian Constitution has stated that a Governor of a state may be removed on grounds of gross misconduct; the constitution has failed to properly define what gross misconduct implies and has indirectly empowered unruly members of House of Assembly to tag any administrative mistake or seeming derogation of the use of power into gross misconduct. Some actions can be garbed as an impeachable offence in the eyes of the members of the House of Assembly as far as Nigeria constitution is concerned.

This position will only serve the end of politicians who seek personal vendettas against governors or their deputies. It was primarily used during the Obasanjo year to punish erring governor or deputies who decided with good conscience to withdraw support for the third term bid. Considering the statistics of the impeachment of political office holders since coming into force of the 1999 constitution, it is glaringly clear that deputy governor have been the highest casualties.

The reason for this is not far-fetched. The office of the deputy governor is an attachment to that of the governor. Even though the 1999 constitution of Nigeria recognizes it, there is no clear cut statutory role for the occupant, he is merely put in office through the goodwill of his benevolent boss the governor and when the governor is tired, he may find away to ease the deputy out of office.

No matter the deputy governor disposition, he or she is essentially a week patron in government house. Section 186, 1999 constitution provides for this office but does not give any power to the office that is the reason why a deputy governor can be easily impeached with little or no gross miss conduct. It is hard to see a governor in Nigeria being impeached as a result of gross misconduct in performance of his duty; rather all impeachment has been politically motivated for political gains.

OPEC means the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries. It was founded in 14 September 1960 in Baghdad, Iraq. It is made up of 13 member’s oil producing state. OPEC was formed as a result of exploitative motives of multinational companies engaged in oil exploration.

Some oil producing states formed the organization as a means of protecting their interest against exploitation. The formation of OPEC represented a collective act of sovereignty by oil exporting nations, and it marked a turning point in state control over natural resources. In the 1060s, OPEC ensured that oil companies could not unilaterally cut prices.

OPEC has a mandate to coordinate and unify the petroleum policies of its members and to ensure the stabilization oil markets in order to secure an efficient economic and regular supply of petroleum to consumers, a steady income to producers and fair return on capital for those investing in the petroleum industry.

Organs of OPEC

• The Conference
• Board of Directors
• Secretariat

The Conference: the conference is the supreme authority made up of high level representatives of the member government, which meets at least twice a year. An extraordinary meeting of the conference may be convened at the request of a member country by the Secretary General after due consultation with the president and approval by majority of member state.

Delegation to the conference may consist of one more delegates as well as advisors and observers. When delegation consists of more than one person, the appointing country shall nominate one person as the head of the delegation.

Functions of the Conference

• Formulation of general policy of the organization and determining the appropriate way and means of its implementation.
• Decide upon any application for membership of the organization.
• Confirm the appointment of member of board of governors.
• Direct the board of governors to submit report or make recommendations in matter of interest to the organization.
• Consider the report and recommendation submitted by the board of governors on the affairs of the organization.
• Approve any amendment of its statue.
• Appoint the chairman of Board of Governors

Board of Governors

The Board of Governor shall be composed of governors nominated by the member countries and confirmed by the conference. Each members of the organization shall be represented at the meeting by the board of governors. A quorum of two third shall be necessary for holding of meetings.

When for any reason, a governor is prevented from attending a meeting of the board of governors; a substitute adhoc governor shall be nominated by the corresponding member country. Such nomination shall not require confirmation by the conference.

At the meeting which he attends, the adhoc governor shall have the same status as the other governors, except as regards qualification for chairmanship of the board of governors. Each governor shall have one vote and the term of office for each governor shall be two years.

Functions of the Board of Governors

• The board of governors manages the affairs of the organization and implements the decision of the conference.
• The board considers any report submitted y the secretary general.
• The board submits report and makes recommendation to the conference on the affairs of the organization.
• Draws up the budget of the organization for each calendar year and submit it to the conference for approval.
• The board nominates the auditor of the organization for duration of one year.
• Considers the statement of accounts and the auditor reports and submit them to the conference for approval.
• Another function of the board is to convene an extraordinary meeting of the conference and prepares the agenda for the conference.

The Secretariat

The secretariat is responsible for the executive functions of the organization in accordance with the provisions of establishing statute under the direction of the board of governors. The secretariat of the organization consists of the secretary general and other staff as may be required. It functions is at the headquarters of the organization.

Duties of the Secretary General

• The secretary general is the legally authorized representatives of the organization.
• The secretary general is the chief of the organization in accordance with directions of the board of governors.
• The secretary general organizes and administers the work of the organization.
• The secretary general ensures that the function and duties assigned to the different departments of the secretariat are carried out.

Achievement of OPEC

• Since its formation in 1960, OPEC has ensured a stable, secure and well managed oil sector. The very first resolution of the organization is to achieve stable oil prices, with a view to eliminating harmful and unnecessary fluctuations.

• OPEC whose membership comes from the developing world has a high priority on easing the plight of impoverished nations, in particular by helping them pursue the goals of sustainable development.

• The oil industry through human ingenuity and technological development has a long history of successfully improving the environmental credentials of oil in both production and use. And OPEC member countries, both individually and collectively have themselves been at the forefront of many important environmental focused development. This includes investing billions of dollars over the past decades in flared gas recovery project.

• OPEC has attached great importance to the continued strengthening of its members country, national oil companies which was dominated by the multinational oil companies that controlled the quantities of oil extracted and sold. Over the past few decades the national oil companies have gradually increased in size, stature and strength, with their roles, responsibility and capabilities advancing enormously. This has helped to reduce the exploitative tendencies of the multinational companies.

Problems of OPEC

• The member states often disagree and do not always cooperate on oil quota. Some of them produce more than the quota allocated to them.
• The rate at which some developed countries are storing oil is a source of worry to OPEC. It had resulted to fall in oil prices.
• The discovery of oil in some developed countries has led to the fall of oil prices in the international market. OPEC members have been unable to decide on what step to take.
• The increase in production by non OPEC members is not OPEC only problem. The continued drive to conserve energy, which has continued despite lower oil prices, has halted the oil market.

Leadership is the ability to influence the activities of others through the process of communication, towards the attainment of goal (Miller 1985). It is a process where one person exerts social influence over the members of a group (Tilley and House 1969). It is the art or process of influencing people so that they will strive willingly towards the achievement of group goals (Koontz, and Donnel 1983). It is the ability of a superior to influence the behaviour or attitudes of subordinates towards a particular end (Obikeze and Obi 2005). Leadership is the ability to influence the behaviour of others in a group or organization towards the achievement of goals.

Features of leadership

• Leadership as to do with trying to make subordinates loyal to the course of the leader.
• A leader must be convinced that something must be done and persuades others to get it done.
• A leader must have the competence, the skill and understanding to motivate employees towards the achievement of organizational goals.
• It is a non-coercive activity aimed at influencing group efforts towards achieving organizational goals.
• It is also a dynamic process.
• It entails the use of influence and motivation.
• It is directed at accomplishing organizational goals/group goals.
• It entails some degree of voluntary compliance by followers.
• It involves inspiring the group to accomplish organizational goals.
• Leadership implies that there is followership.
• It involves unequal use of power and usually exercised in superior-subordinate relationship.

Importance of Effective Leadership in Organization

• It provides mission and vision for the organization.
• It provide the base for effective management of conflict in the organization
• It facilitates progress and inspires the group to accomplish organizational goals.
• It serves as glue that binds the work group together.
• It constitutes a catalyst that triggers employee motivation.
• It provides emotional stability and optimism in organization in times of change and turbulence.
• Effective leadership results to voluntary compliances to directives or instructions in an organization.

Difference between Managers/Administrators and Leaders

• Administrators are appointed with the legitimate power to reward or punish subordinates while a leader is either appointed or emerges naturally from within the group and can only influence people by his personal strength not by constituted authority.
• Administrators have formal authority while leaders do not.
• Administrators are more concerned with the achievement of organizational goals while leaders are more concerned with people welfare.
• Administrator could be a leader but a leader may not necessarily be an administrator.
• Managers adopt impersonal attitudes towards goals while leaders adopt more personal and active attitude towards goal achievement.

Types of Leadership

There are three main types of leadership. They are traditional leadership, qualitative leadership, which is based on personal qualities and legal leadership, which is leadership based on law or derived from the constitution of the land.

Traditional leadership: This type of leadership is based on the custom and traditions of the people. This form of leadership is associated with the stool, tradition or customs of the people. The leader may be seen as God, a divine king, a spiritual head or a representative of the ancestors. The leader is associated with holiness just like the Pope in Roman Catholic. The traditional leader is respected by his subject in turn. Note that the traditional leadership may be imposed by custom and tradition. The traditional leadership in Nigeria are the Alafin, the Oni of Ife, the Oba of Benin, the Ata of Igala, the Etsu of Nupe, the Aku of Jukun, the Obong of Calabar and the Igwe of Igbo people etc. this form of leadership may be hereditary, appointed or selected or imposed by divine powers.

Qualitative leadership: This type of leadership is created by nature, whereby the person possesses rare qualities. A qualitative leader may be selected after an inter community war or after a battle with another tribe, in which the leader exhibited exceptional quality of leadership.

Legal leadership: This type of leadership is based on the provision of the constitution or the law of the land. The constitution usually provides for the age of such leader, the qualities or character he should possess, his citizenship, class, income and other qualities. The leader may be selected by voting and after selection he occupies the position of leadership for a term of years. This type of leadership is backed by law and term of office is limited by law. A leader must be chosen by the people or elected.

A leader who carries the will of the people with him is usually a good leader. The traditional, qualitative and legal leadership must aspire to carry his people along and do what will benefit the society. Note that, despite the types of leadership any leader may ascribe to, a leader must be knowledgeable, wise, assertive, cooperative, adaptable, persistent, tolerant, confident, kind, energetic, honest, charismatic and morally strong. He must not possess all but a combination of the above attributes.

Other types of leadership includes, visionary, charismatic, transformatory, invitational, directive, supportive, participatory servant. A leader must work for collective interest of all either in the short or long run.  A leader who works for the interest of a group or for the selfish interest of a few to undermine the collective interest is a bad leader. But if he works for the interest of a few that will positively impact on the collective interest of majority on the long run, he is a good leader. A good leader must have the Wisdom of Solomon and the foolishness of Absalom put together.

Visionary leader: A leader with a vision is a visionary leader. This is the kind of leadership that is referred to as a philosopher king. The leader must know, articulate and plan his programme for the state. He must select men of good character in his planned programmes. Examples of such leaders are George Washington of America, Ghandhi of india, Chissano of Moszambique etc.

Charismatic leader: A charismatic leader is one who is cherished by the masses or who has massive following. Charismatic leaders are good orators; their speeches are powerful enough to draw legions of followers. Charismatic leader does what pleases the heart of the people.

Transformatory leader: This type of leader seeks to transform the society from an agrarian economy to an industrial one, from a poor state to wealthy society. The transformatory leader looks at the society and seeks to change it for better. A leader who have a transformatory character, looks at the primary factors of development like education (both technical, theoretical and research) civil service, establishment of basic necessities, provisions of roads, water, electricity and provisions of basic necessities of life. A transformatory leader has the desire to transform his society to a better standard in the society of nations.

Invitational leader: An invitational leader is one who opens his hands and invites other members of the society to support and contribute to leadership. This type of leadership lends credence that two heads are better than one. The leadership under him invites supports both technical and artificial from within and without for the good governance of his society. Note that a leader may not use of the advice but must select the best of them in his programmes. A leader that understands the enormous duties and responsibilities of leadership usually invites professionals in their various fields to support his administration. The good advice of the invites is naturally carried out by the leader to achieve his goal.

LEADERSHIP QUALITIES

Ability to communicate: a leader should have the ability to communicate effectively with subordinates. He should as a matter of necessity have the ability to write and talk clearly and forcefully for persuasive, informative and simulative purposes.

Ability to persevere: he should have the ability to endure, work for long hours, intensely apply himself to work, show enthusiasm and have tenacity of purpose.

Ability to inspire: a leader should have the ability to inspire followers to apply their full capacities towards the attainment of set target.

Ability to initiate: a leader should be able to initiate actions and get his group moving.

Ability to understand things fast: a good leader must be able to understand what motivates his subordinates and how to keep them motivated.

Ability to socialize: a good leader must be a social person, friendly and easy to approach.

Ability to teach:  a leader must have the ability to demonstrate how a task should be accomplished, correct mistakes and prepare followers for advancement.

Ability to emphasize: a good leader must have the ability to look at things objectively and understand from another person point of view.